Cholera Disease Research Report Essay Example

Cholera Disease Research Report Essay Karla Obasi HEA 341 Disease Research Report December 9, 2010 CHOLERA Disease Defined Cholera is an infection of the small intestine that causes a large amount of watery diarrhea. Cholera is a bacterial disease (caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae) usually spread through contaminated water. The bacteria, which are found in fecal-contaminated food and water and in raw or undercooked seafood, produce a toxin that affects the intestines causing diarrhea, vomiting, and severe fluid and electrolyte loss. This overwhelming dehydration is the outstanding characteristic of the disease and is the main cause of death. Cholera has a short incubation period (two or three days) and runs a quick course. In untreated cases the death rate is high, averaging 50%, and as high as 90% in epidemics, but with effective treatment the death rate is less than 1%. Historical Perspective During 1883, cholera was epidemic in Egypt. A German physician and bacteriologist, Robert Koch traveled with a group of German colleagues from Berlin to Alexandria, Egypt in August, 1883. Following necropsies, they found a bacillus in the intestinal mucosa in persons who died of cholera, but not of other diseases. He reasoned that the bacillus was related to the cholera process, but was not sure if it was causal or consequential. He stipulated that the time sequence could only be resolved by isolating the organism, growing it in pure culture, and reproducing a similar disease in animals. He was not able to obtain such a pure culture, but did try to infect animals with choleraic material. None became infected. We will write a custom essay sample on Cholera Disease Research Report specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Cholera Disease Research Report specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Cholera Disease Research Report specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer His thoughts and early findings were sent in a dispatch to the German government and shared with the German press. On January 7th 1884, Koch announced in a dispatch that he had successfully isolated the bacillus in pure culture. One month later he wrote again, stating that the bacillus was not straight like other bacilli, but a little bent, like a comma. Â   He also noted that the bacillus was able to proliferate in moist soiled linen or damp earth, and was susceptible to drying and weak acid solutions. Finally, e pointed out that the specific organisms were always found in patients with cholera but never in those with diarrhea from other causes, were relatively rare in early infection, but were extensively present in the characteristic rice water stools of advanced cholera patients. He was, however, still unable to reproduce the disease in animals, reasoning correctly that they are not susceptible. In May, 1884 Koch and his colleagues returned to Berlin where they were treated as n ational heroes. Epidemiology Cholera is a disease that occurs in low income regions of the world where sanitation, food and water hygiene are inadequate. Imported cases occasionally occur in travelers returning from endemic areas. In areas without clean water or sewage disposal (as may occur after natural disasters or in displaced populations in areas of conflict), cholera can spread quickly and have a case fatality rate of as high as 50% in vulnerable groups with limited medical care. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports the emergence of new strains of Vibrio cholerae which now predominates in parts of Africa and Asia, and the emergence and spread of antibiotic resistant strains. Annual global figures (2009) reported to WHO included 221,226 cases and 4,946 deaths from 45 countries. The majority of cases (98%) were reported from Africa where an outbreak, that started in 2008 and lasted for almost a year, spread to South Africa and Zambia. By the end of July 2009, over 98,000 cases and 4,000 deaths were reported in this outbreak. Asia reported an 82% decrease in cases in 2009 compared to 2008, however, reports of acute watery diarrhea, many of which may be cholera, were not included. When cholera first appears in epidemic form in an unexposed population, it can affect all age groups. In contrast, in areas with high rates of endemic disease, most of the adult population have gained some degree of natural immunity because of illness or repeated asymptomatic infections. In this setting, the disease occurs primarily in young children, who are exposed to the organism for the first time, and in the elderly, who have lower gastric acid production and waning immunity. The poor are at greatest risk because hey often lack safe water supplies, are unable to maintain proper hygiene within the home, and may depend on street vendors or other unregulated sources for food and drink. Recent epidemiologic research suggests that an individuals susceptibility to cholera (and other diarrheal infections) is affected by their blood type: those with type O blood are the most susceptible, while those with type AB are the most resistant. Between these two extremes are the A and B blood ty pes, with type A being more resistant than type B. Signs and Symptoms Dry mucus membranes or mouth * Dry skin * Excessive thirst * Glassy or sunken eyes * Lack of tears * Lethargy * Low urine output * Nausea * Rapid dehydration * Abdominal cramps * Watery diarrhea * Rapid pulse * Vomiting The usual incubation period is 2 to 5 days, although it can be as short as several hours. Severe cholera is characterized by a sudden onset of profuse, watery diarrhea accompanied by nausea and vomiting. If left untreated, this can rapidly lead to serious dehydration, electrolyte imbalance and circulatory collapse. Over 50% of the most severe cases die within a few hours? with prompt, effective treatment, mortality is less than 1%. Cholera may be asymptomatic or mild in healthy individuals, with diarrhea as the only symptom. Etiology/Pathophysiology Most of the Vibrio cholerae bacteria in the contaminated water consumed by the host do not survive the highly acidic conditions of the human stomach. The few bacteria that do survive conserve their energy and store during the passage through the stomach by shutting down protein production. When the surviving bacteria exit the stomach and reach the small intestine, they need to propel themselves through the thick mucus that lines the small intestine to get to the intestinal wall where they can thrive. The bacteria start up production of the protein flagellin to make flagella so that they can propel themselves through the mucus of the small intestine. StoIn some animals, including vertebrates, echinoderms, insects and molluscs, the stomach is a muscular, hollow, dilated part of the alimentary canal which functions as the primary organ of the digestive tract. It is involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication . The stomach is Once the cholera bacteria reach the intestinal wall, they do not need the flagella propellers to move any longer. The bacteria stop producing the protein flagellin, thus again conserving energy and nutrients by changing the mix of proteins which they manufacture in response to the changed chemical surroundings. On reaching the intestinal wall, Vibrio cholerae start producing the toxic proteins that give the infected person a watery diarrhea. This carries the multiplying new generations of the bacteria out into the drinking water of the next host if proper sanitation measures are not in place. Diagnostic Methods Cholera is diagnosed by the stool sample and it keeps out the bacteria, which can cause cholera. Cholera needs immediate action because of watery diarrhea, so the health centre can begin lack of fluids treatment before a final diagnosis is made. A number of tests have been performed to check cholera: * A doctor confirms a diagnosis of cholera by recovering the bacteria from fresh stool sample or from rectal swabs. A dark-field atomic test of fresh feces shows quick moving bacilli allows for a quick, cautious analysis. * Cholera can be established only by the separation of the contributory organism from the diarrheic stools of infected persons. Clinical symptoms are profuse watery diarrhea. Cholera cots, cots with openings to allow fecal output into a bucket, are used to measure volumes of stool loss and fluid repl acement needs. Lab tests include stool gram stain (gram negative rods) culture, dark field microscopy or stool PCR. People must begin treatment even before diagnostic work-up. Treatment Methods The objective of treatment is to replace fluid and electrolytes lost through diarrhea. Depending on your condition, you may be given fluids by mouth or through a vein (intravenous). Antibiotics may shorten the time you feel ill. The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed an oral rehydration solution that is cheaper and easier to use than the typical intravenous fluid. This solution of sugar and electrolytes is now being used internationally. Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) involves the replacement of fluids and electrolytes lost during an episode of diarrheal illness. Diarrheal illnesses are pervasive worldwide, and they have a particularly large impact in the developing world. Children under the age of five are the major victims and account for over 3 million deaths a year due to dehydration associated with diarrheal illness. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that over one million deaths are prevented annually by ORT. An oral rehydration solution (ORS) is the cornerstone of this treatment. Between 90 and 95 percent of cases of acute, watery diarrhea can be successfully treated with ORT. Prognosis Most infections are not severe, with about 75% to 80% of infected people not showing any symptoms. These individuals continue to shed the bacteria back into the environment, potentially infecting others with the disease. Because of severe dehydration, fatality rates are very high (25% to 65%) when untreated, especially among infants, young children, older individuals and people with a compromised immune system. Death can occur with adults within hours of infection, but those who recover usually have long-term immunity against reinfection. Prevention and Control Methods The first cardinal rule in preventing cholera and other infectious diseases is routine hand washing. A safe and clean supply of water is the key to cholera prevention. Adequate chlorination of public water supplies and, in some cases, the distribution of chlorine tablets to households with instructions for their proper use are often effective measures. If chemical disinfection is not possible, people can be instructed to boil water before drinking it, but this may be difficult to accomplish, especially in poor countries where fuel may be expensive or unavailable. Measures for the prevention of cholera mostly consist of providing clean water and proper sanitation to populations who do not yet have access to basic services. Health education and good food hygiene are equally important. Communities should be reminded of basic hygienic behaviors, including the necessity of systematic hand-washing with soap after defecation and before handing food or eating, as well as safe preparation and conservation of food. Appropriate media, such as radio, television or newspapers should be involved in disseminating health education messages. Community and religious leaders should also be associated to social mobilization campaigns. Among people developing symptoms, 80% of episodes are of mild or moderate severity. The remaining 10%-20% of cases develop severe watery diarrhea with signs of dehydration. Once an outbreak is detected, the usual intervention strategy aims to reduce mortality ideally below 1% by ensuring access to treatment and controlling the spread of disease. To achieve this, all partners involved should be properly coordinated and those in charge of water and sanitation must be included in the response strategy. Recommended control methods, including standardized case management, have proven effective in reducing the case-fatality rate. The main tools for cholera control are: * proper and timely case management in cholera treatment centers * specific training for proper case management, including avoidance of nosocomial infections * sufficient pre-positioned medical supplies for case management (e. g. iarrheal disease kits) * improved access to water, effective sanitation, proper waste management and vector control * enhanced hygiene and food safety practices; improved communication and public information Today, no country requires proof of cholera vaccination as a condition for entry and the International Certificate of Vaccination no longer provides a specific space for recording cholera vaccinations. The International Health Regulatio ns do not provide a legal basis for countries to require travelers to have proof of cholera vaccination as reference to uch requirements was removed from the Regulations in 1973. WHO does not consider that proof of vaccination plays any useful role in preventing the international spread of cholera and therefore represents an unnecessary interference with international travel. Bibliography 1. Lam C, Octavia S, Reeves P, et al. Evolution of seventh cholera pandemic and origin of 1991 epidemic, Latin America. Emergence of Infectious Diseases. 2010. 2. World Health Organization. Cholera, 2009. Weekly Epidemiology. 2010. 3. World Health Organization. Cholera vaccines: WHO position paper. Weekly Epidemiology. 2010. http://www. who. int/cholera/en/index. html 4. World Health Organization. Fact sheet 107: June 2010. Cholera. Available at: http://www. who. int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs107/en/index. html 5. Health Protection Agency. Foreign Travel associated Illness in England, Wales and Northern Ireland: 2007 report. London: Health Protection Agency? 2007 6. Wittlinger F, Steffen R, Watanabe H, Handszuh H. Risk of cholera among Western and Japanese travelers. Journal of Medical Travel. 995. 7. Morger H, Steffen R, Schar M. Epidemiology of cholera in travelers, and conclusions for vaccination recommendations. British Medical Journal. 1983. 8. Heymann DL, editor. Co ntrol of Communicable Diseases Manual. 18th ed. Washington: American Public Health Association. 2004. 9. Hill DR, Ford L and Lalloo, DG. Oral cholera vaccines: use in clinical practice. Lancet Infectious Research Journal. 2006. 10. Salisbury D, Ramsay M, Noakes K. , eds. Immunization against infectious diseases. Department of Health. 3rd ed. London. 2006.

Research Essay Essay Example

Research Essay Essay Example Research Essay Essay Research Essay Essay Essay Topic: The Glass Menagerie â€Å"Reading is neither neutral, nor natural. † How does your context as a reader influence your reading of The Dreamers? Reading is neither neutral, nor natural. Readers are constantly positioned to make their own ideas and opinions of different texts based on their own understand and connecting of their personal context. In Jack Davis’ The Dreamers the descriptions of the tribal family in the first scene provide a strong, central reading that while I would accept, the earlier generations from those times would challenge the mutual reading of the harmonious tribal family. The different generations of past and present times would also have many contrasting views on particular characters such as Worru. Additionally, the study of past texts, such as The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams and Coonardoo by Katherine Suzanne Prichard, allows me to comprehend the meaning behind the symbol of alcohol in The Dreamers and how it is a representation of escapism for people in degrading ways of society. In the beginning of The Dreamers by Jack Davis, we are described a scene of a tribal family walking, relaxed, across an escarpment with children happily singing songs of cultural meaning, relaying their innocence and happy family-based futures: â€Å"Dawn. We hear the distant echoing of children singing a tribal song. A tribal family walks slowly across the escarpment silhouetted against the first light of dawn. The central, prominent reading brought forward by Davis’ descriptions and symbolism of the melodious, peaceful tribal family is one I accept because of Davis’ way of showing the harmonious nature of the aboriginal culture and way in their environment, in the world they know. However, the white generations of the 1980s would contrast and challenge this communal reading because of their own racial attitudes and beliefs of Aboriginals. To the whites of the 1980s, Aboriginals were filthy and worthless individuals and therefore the white society audiences were unable to cope with and respect the cultural identity and way of life of Aboriginals. These confrontational views of The Dreamers show how reading is not neutral. Every generation is different, therefore they all respond to particular readings inversely due to their own personal context. This reinforces that reading is not neutral. Worru is a character in The Dreamers who is exceedingly diverse from the members of his family. Worru is the representation of Davis’ views of his own complicated culture and aboriginal context. Worru is desperately trying to hold onto his Nyoongah (aboriginal) culture that within him has ‘survived civilisation’ through reminiscing about life before white settlement and his language: â€Å"I walked down the track to where the camp place used to be and voices, laughing, singing, came surging back to me. In Act One Scene One, Worru sings of his past, something that is all but real now that he is going through a lost as a result of living in a suburbia-dominated world. Through the study of Coonardoo by Katherine Suzanne Prichard, I am able to see that the aboriginal generational views would be ones of sympathy and empathetic understanding, as aboriginals would be able to relate heavily with Worru, knowing just how much they lost because of the dramatic change in the way they wanted to live. On the contrary, a white audience of the same era wouldn’t be able to understand how aboriginals couldn’t adapt to such a â€Å"easy† lifestyle, and be unable to connect to the Aboriginal background and estrangement of their race. Readers who have read more texts than most are able to see and understand how changed contexts but parallel themes are cooperative in identifying symbols. Through my reading The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams and The Dreamers has allowed me to understand the symbol of alcohol and its meaning of escapism in both plays respectively. Tom Wingfield from The Glass Menagerie drinks constantly, trying to escape the horrors of the Great Depression in America. He drinks to forget his issues and withdraw from a pitiful reality. This reading allows me to understand the reasoning behind why, in The Dreamers, Worru, Peter, Eli and Roy all drink constantly – using money needed for food and other essentials: â€Å"The full bottle is now nearly empty. The heat and the alcohol are taking their toll. † The characters drink alcohol to also escape from the cultural oppression of white society and the failing ways of aboriginal life. They see alcohol as the only way to forget what has been done to them, as it is an influential depressant, and using it to disengage from a reality that would see the complete deprivation of the aboriginal way – a way they cherish. An informed reading is not something that just comes naturally, it must be taught and learnt over the reading of numerous texts, therefore reading is not natural. In Conclusion, readings are mostly advanced through a readers own individual context and experiences. My interpretations on a tribal aboriginal family were analogized by the white generations of the 1980s view on aboriginals, establishing that reading is not neutral. The diverse generational views formed unlike perspectives on who would sympathise with the hostility of the aboriginal race, my own background through the study of the other texts Coonardoo, The Dreamers and The Glass Menagerie has given me a purer understanding of how alcohol embodies escapism for people in contemporary society. All these factors have established my view that reading is neither neutral, nor natural.

Animals and Myriad Ways they can Kill or Heal Us Essay - 1

Animals and Myriad Ways they can Kill or Heal Us - Essay Example Introduction A lot of animals in this world are poisonous. Often they come in direct conflict with humans and become the cause of death and partial or total paralysis. This is the reason man has hated these animals for centuries. By making these animals useful, present advancement of science and technologies has changed this preconceived notion. Some of these animals are snakes, spiders, and scorpions. This paper reviews the benefits that are derived from venoms of these animals, the process of processing venom and the diseases they cure. Venom ejected by snakes can be broadly classified into four groups. These are neurotoxins, sitotoxins, hemotoxins and miotoxins. In the majority of cases, neurotoxic venom is related to the nervous system, hemotoxins is related to blood and vascular tissues and miotoxins is a combination of both neurotoxic and hemotoxic venoms. Cobra is one of those snakes whose venom is used for therapeutic purposes. Venom ejected by cobra can be classified as a ne urotoxin, a compound that affects nervous systems of human beings. Reference to cobra venom can be traced to Chinese civilization and Vedas. During the early 1900’s cobra venom was largely used as a medicine to treat people with depression, back pain, headaches and menstrual pain (The Therapeutic Uses of Cobras’ Venom Neurotoxins, n.d.). ... The homeopathic physicians prescribe venom of Asian Cobra (Naja tripudians), but in practice, venom from all types of cobra from Middle East to Philippines is taken and processed (The Therapeutic Uses, n.d.). Medical use Since 1960, snakes venom has acquired an important place in medical treatment. The compounds present in snake venom affect muscle contraction by enhancement of the hormone Bradykinin. This hormone is responsible for dilatation the blood vessels. â€Å"The peptides present in venom transform angiotensin I into another peptide, angiotensin II, which also supports constriction†. When the Bradykinin as well as other peptides are blocked, the process of ‘blood vessel constriction’ no longer functions. Only the process of dilatation takes place. This makes snake venom an effective and alternative treatment for treating symptoms of hypertension. In spite of not being a medical drug, peptide present in snake venom contains numerous chemical features which make â€Å"it indispensible for heart attacks, neurological disorders, diseases related to blood†. Some drugs that are processed from venom of snakes are Lisinopril, Enalapril, Defibrase and Captopril. More extensive use of snake venom is utilized in treating problems related with blood cells. Snake venom has also helped in development of non- peptide compounds like Aggrastat by using ‘disintegrin’, which is a toxin present in the venoms of saw- scaled viper found in Africa. The compound functions by binding fibrinogen receptors present in blood onto platelets which is performed by disintegrin, thus performing the function of a coagulant. Some compounds in snake venom, like ‘Ancrod’ enzyme of Calloselasma rhodostoma also functions as

Noble Lie and Platos Republic Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Noble Lie and Platos Republic - Essay Example The noble lie gives a chance to ruled class to mould and shape the belief they want their subjects develop and if the ruler is benevolent, the belief inculcated in the people can result in harmony and after all harmonious life is the final objective of any society. The Platonic opinion regarding problem of discourse is regarding ‘powers and perils’ and noble lie is an aspect that minimizes the perils of the power from the people who question the right doings as well as wrong doings of the ruling elite. The noble lie is good as long as the elite people do not exploit the ruled people from the privilege they gain from the belief of the people in noble lie. Though it can be termed as a tool for thought control of the ruled, it will be good as long as it is related to ‘will to truth’. Hesk Jon (2000) quotes Marcel Detienne who argues about Greek notions of truth. By accepting the noble lie as part of a model republic, the rulers should concentrate only on submis siveness from the people but the activities of rulers should not undermine the rational thought of the ruled in their daily chores. However, benevolent rulers take care that the noble lie aspect does not interfere in the justice delivery system. In the context of delivery of justice, it is possible to ignore noble lie if the rulers are enough discretion regarding it. The same can be interpreted in case of Noble lie and it can be ignored to treat ruled and the rulers equally while delivering justice.

Computer Science-Information System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Computer Science-Information System - Essay Example in the case of industrial espionage or actions on the competitors' side) or inadvertent. Anyway, uncontrolled distribution of private information (especially about customers, e.g. card numbers, addresses, orders, business transactions, etc.) will result in withdrawal of customers and business partners, numerous lawsuits, and reducing revenues and profits. Therefore, often companies try to protect own information systems at the expense of employees privacy. This is a part of computer crime prevention measures with usage of specialized encrypting and authentication hardware and software, anti-malware programs such as Internet filters, firewalls, antiviruses, intrusion detection systems, etc. In some cases company's prevention measures contain monitoring for employee's communications from office workstations including e-mail control. Here, it is necessary to note that federal laws permit employers to monitor e-mail sent and received by employees. However, most companies maintain own privacy policies, trying to balance between privacy rights and security of business information. Sometimes corporate privacy policies allow employees and customers to access data about them and let them decide how that data can be used. This helps to avoid possible misunderstandings between company, employees, and customers. 2. 2. It is obvious that working conditions in IT Company must be designed to prevent computer crimes and simultaneously to avoid negative ethical consequences of prevention procedures. In fact, there is need to balance between some restrictions of Company's information flows and some rights to privacy, and also some rights to know; see Freeman & Graham Peace (2005), and also Tynan (2005). There are two main strategies to achieve such balance which often combined in practice. First strategy is "the way of prohibitions", namely not to distribute business information and information about technical processes, innovations, features of source codes, information from Company's internal databases, not to delete or corrupt information without clear instructions, etc. These restrictions can be easy formulated, described and then realized by technical means. Also, there are certain possibilities to reveal and investigate almost all cases of violation such Company's rules. These violations can be classified as computer crimes and often related to industrial espionage and information "wars" between competing companies. It is necessary to note that employee must have access to certain parts of Company's data to perform work tasks; therefore, information cannot be concealed at all. Alternative strategy is "the way of responsibility and obligations" or using corporate ethic rules. These rules determine generally accepted and discouraged activities within IT Company and between organizations. Employees define acceptable practices more strictly than just refraining from committing computer crimes; they also consider the effects of their activities on other people and organizations. Therefore, it is necessary to promote ethically responsible use of information systems on the base of developed codes of ethics, e.g. AITP code of ethics. This code of ethics is a set of obligations to management, fellows, society, employer, and country. For each area of obligation, standards of conduct describe the specific duties and

Essay Writing In Malaysian Schools

Essay Writing In Malaysian Schools Essay writing is a must for Malaysian secondary schools students. There are few types of essays that the students need to master. Guided writing, summary writing and continuous writing are the three main types of essay that are tested in examination. These three different types of writing test students ability to understand and use correct grammar, to apply language skills for interpersonal purposes, to apply language skills for informational purposes, and to apply language skills for aesthetic purposes (Malaysian Examinations Syndicate, 2004). Students have to excel in these three types of writing to be able to apply it in real life situation. Students are assessed on their writing skills in school tests as well as in the national standardized test. Different methods of assessment are used in evaluating students essays. At different levels and tests, there will be at least a minor difference in the method of assessing. In Malaysia secondary school, teachers are not given any specific guides to assess students written works. They assess according to their own methods and experiences. Many methods can be used for assessing students essays. Every method has its own specific guidance and teachers can use them based on their needs and students performance. For example, holistic scoring method is used to assess students essays in a generalized way that is to look at their works as a whole piece without analyzing it in details. Any method is analytic scoring method where teachers look at students performance in details. Both methods can be applied by teachers in classroom- based assessment. In this study, only two methods of essay scoring will be discussed which are mentioned above. Holistic and analytic scoring methods are very different and unique in their own way. Therefore, it is important that teachers know how to use both of them in assessing students essays. The subjects that will be chosen for this study are English teachers in secondary schools in Malaysia. They will be investigated on the ways they use to assess their students essay. A few students from their class will also be chosen to give feedbacks about their teachers assessment. 1.2 Statement of Problem Students essays are marked without a standard scale in Malaysian secondary schools. Teachers score their students based on what they think is good for them. They use mostly holistic scoring method which might not be fair to students (Bloom, Daiker White). The ministry of education might be responsible for what had happened. Teachers mark students essays according to what the ministry suggests. Holistic scoring method has long been implemented in schools. Is it the best method for teachers and students? Some problems have occurred with this method because it is not specific enough. It might also create biasness in the case where students are close to their teachers. This method views the essay as a whole without further analysis on each component. While analytic scoring method views the essay in a more specific way, it provides details for students to be able to know what is lacking in their essays. Analytic scoring method uses a rubric as a standard scale to mark essays. Analytic scoring method is regarded as requiring more work and is expensive while holistic scoring method is considered cheaper and more efficient. Holistic scoring method provides less information to students than analytic soring method. Each of the methods has their own advantages but there should be one method that is more suitable for essay scoring. 1.3 Purpose of the Study This study is aimed at investigating the use of holistic scoring method and analytic rubrics in essay scoring among teachers of Malaysian secondary school. This study is also aimed at discovering the relationship between the two methods. Another goal of this study is to find out how analytic scoring method can be applied in Malaysian secondary schools. 1.4 Significance of the Study Methods of essay scoring have been discussed by many experts all around the globe. It is important in a sense that it reflects students ability in writing essay. The wrong method used to mark their essays will cause their performance to drop. How students write essays, sometimes depend on how the teachers mark their essay. There is a vital connection between the two. Basically, Malaysian secondary schools teachers mark students essay according to what they believe is correct and suitable for their students and the method they use can be considered as holistic scoring method. It is very important that they know a method in specific so that they can mark students essay in details. With this study, it is hope that teachers will realized that analytic scoring method is a more suitable method to be used in essay scoring as it will enhance students writing skills precisely and increase the quality of their essays. 1.5 Research Questions The research questions for this study are as follows: How is holistic scoring method used in marking students essays? How are analytic scoring rubrics used in marking students essays? Why is the holistic scoring method mostly used in school? Why is the analytic scoring rubric rarely used for marking essays in school? How far is it possible to integrate analytic scoring rubric in the curriculum of Malaysian secondary school? CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction According to Normah Othman (2006), there is no specific scoring strategy implemented specially for a classroom-based assessment of direct writing in Malaysian secondary schools. As it is now, ESL teachers currently use a scoring method adopted from the Malaysian Examinations Syndicate. Therefore, teachers can choose to use analytic or holistic scoring. But most of the teachers use holistic scoring in Malaysian Secondary context. Below are the researches done at different countries on analytic and holistic scoring method. According to Alharby (2006), studies addressing issues related to performance assessment seem to be taking two relatively different directions. One if it is to search for the best scoring method that maximizes reliability and validity of assessment. This is usually accomplished by comparing two of the most popular scoring methods used with performance assessment, the holistic scoring method vs. the analytic scoring method. According to him again, the holistic scoring method is usually used with large scale assessment because it is less time consuming than the analytic method; the latter often producing a very large number of responses that need to be evaluated in a short period of time. The analytic scoring method, on the other hand, is usually used with classroom assessments because it provides more detailed feedback on students learning progress for teachers, students, and parents than does the holistic scoring method. In this research paper, the two essay scoring methods will be f ocused on in Malaysian secondary school context. Moon and Callahan (2001) reported that performance assessments have become more popular within classroom assessments for the last two decades. Methods used in performance assessment are analytic and holistic scoring methods. This two types of scoring methods have been concerned by many researches regarding issues such as its reliability (Parkers, Zimmaro, Zappe, Suen, 1998), validity (Kane, Crooks Cohen, 1999), cost (Picus, 1994), and practicality (Baker Aschbacher, 1992). In this research paper, all the mentioned issues will only be dealt as general factors that affect teachers of English in Malaysian secondary context in choosing essay scoring method. Waltman, Kahn Koency (1998) found that the way raters score individual responses affect reliability as well as the validity of an assessment. The two most common ways to score individual responses such as essays written by students are the holistic scoring method and the analytic scoring method. According to Clauser (2000), analytic scoring method is recommended for simple tasks such as tasks to evaluate students ability in spelling and grammar usage. On the other hand, Clauser recommends the holistic scoring method when the tasks are more complicated such as evaluating the adequacy of a haiku. According to Charney (1984), the holistic scoring method tends to be favored by large scale assessment with numerous examinees because it is less time consuming. In contrast, Vacc (1989) claimed that the analytic scoring method tends to be favored by classroom assessment because of the detailed feedback it offers to teachers, students, and their parents in terms of how students performed on t he assessment. Holistic Scoring Method The holistic scoring method was first introduced in 1960s and was known as the general impression scoring method (Hunter, 1996). Similarly, Ojeda (2004) stated that the holistic scoring approach is an approach where graders read to evaluate an essay as a whole-without focusing on or overemphasizing any one particular part or aspect. It started to become popular in the middle of the 70s (Boring, 2002). Huot (1990) pointed out that the holistic scoring method is a technique in which raters are asked to evaluate individual responses as a whole by their first impression without going to specific possible subdomains of the trait being tested. Klein et al. (1998, p.122) stated that this approach [holistic scoring method] is usually most appropriate when the whole is greater than the sum of the parts, that is when scores need to be sensitive to general features of answer quality, such as organization, style, and persuasiveness. In recent year, the holistic scoring method has become even mor e popular, especially with large scale assessments. In Malaysian secondary schools, this method is widely used. Besides that, many researchers have also tried to define holistic scoring approach. White (1984, 1985) defined holistic scoring as a global approach to texts, reflecting the idea that a written text is a single entity. White (1984, 1985) maintained that holistic scoring is preferable because it more closely simulates the impression a reader the meaning of the text as a whole rather than focus on individual features of the writing, such as grammar. White (1985), Weigle (2002), and Hyland (2002) describe holistic scoring as involving carefully selected and experienced raters who use their skilled impressions to give a paper a single, integrated score that is supposed to represent the writers overall writing ability. Powills, Bowers, and Conlan (1979) explained that this holistic approach to scoring essays is an attempt to evaluate wholes rather than parts so that performance on one facet does not determine the judgment of performance on the whole. Different researchers have identified different reasons for the increase of the holistic scoring methods popularity. Some think that it is because the holistic scoring method is the most direct assessment technique (Cooper, 1997); while others think that the reason is that the holistic scoring method is the most economical, flexible and applicable assessment (Huot, 1990; Veal Hudson, 1983). As for White (2004), he pointed out that despite disagreements that arise about the scorings of some papers; this has become the standard way of scoring gatekeeping writing tests in large-scale writing assessments. Findings by Coffman (1968), Freedman (1979), and Breland and Jones (1984) supported that holistic scoring helps focus raters on meaning, showing that holistic raters of essay writing ability seem to attend more to content features than to mechanics and sentence structure. One potential advantage of holistic scoring methods in the assessment of second language writing ability is that they are more practical. Godshalk, Swineford, and Coffman, (1966), Alloway (1978), and Powills, Bowers, and Conlan (1979) all found holistic scoring methods to be more efficient than analytic scoring methods, particularly for large-scale exams, noting the advantages of such an approach in saving time and money. Furthermore, Smith, Winters-Edys, Quellmalz, and Baker (1980) estimated that holistic scoring takes approximately two-thirds the time of analytic scoring. Although holistic scoring method is widely accepted as the most appropriate tool for this purpose, many writing practitioners and administrators reportedly view the holistic technique with reservation (Enginarlar, 1991, p. 39). Hamp-Lyons (1996, p. 234) objects to the single point score resulting from holistic grading, which she claims obscures a pattern of consistent overemphasis or underemphasis on basic language control. Another claim is that a higher share of midlevel papers seem to end up with split scores-scores 2 points apart that must be resolved by a third grader-so holistic scoring may be less effective for evaluating midlevel performances than an analytic method might be (Elbow, 1996b). According to East (2009), the strength of holistic scoring lies in its practicality, which in large-scale testing contexts is an important consideration. Besides that, Vaughan (1991) argues that researchers looking at holistic assessment have often assumed that given a scale that describes the characteristics of an essay at each level, trained raters will assess the essays in the same way every time (p.112). Despite all the strength of holistic scoring, Prior research has established that there are some problems with holistic scoring method. Charney (1984) speculates that scores in holistic readings are based on superficial features, such as handwriting, essay length, word choice and spelling errors. This is in accord with Stewart and Grobe (1979), who concluded that raters were primarily influenced by essay length and freedom from simple mechanical errors (p. 214). Diederich, French, and Carlton (1961) found that judgments made by essay raters under holistic scoring conditions were unreliable. They recommended that considerable effort should be done to establish and maintain reliable ratings. Diederich (1974) claimed that until holistic scoring procedures were refined, the score an essay received could depend more on who the rater was than on any qualities of the text itself. Charney (1984), Gere (1980), and Odell and Cooper (1980) also questioned the premises on which certain conclusions about the reliability of holistic scoring have been based. Charney observed that the way holistic raters read texts may create an unnatural reading environment in which scores might only reflect agreement on salient but superficial features of writing, such as the quality of the handwriting or the presence of spelling errors. According to Hamp-Lyons (1995), English as Second Language writers have a special need for scoring procedures that go beyond just the assign of a single score because one score does not allow raters to distinguish between various aspects of writing, such as language control, range of vocabulary, or organizational control. Hamp-Lyons also pointed out that it is problematic for second language (L2) writers since different aspects of writing ability seem to develop at different rates for different writers. Some writers may be strong in expressing content and organization, but limited in grammatical accuracy; others may have excellent language control at the sentence level, but be unable to organize their writing. All the aspects mentioned by Hamp-Lyons should be taken into consideration when teachers of English in Malaysian secondary schools score an essay. Additionally, holistic scores are not easy to interpret because raters do not necessarily use the same criteria to arrive at the same scores. One rater may assign a score to a writing sample based on content and organization, while another rater assigns the same score on the basis of language control (grammar) and vocabulary. Charney (1984) noted that time constraints affect raters depth of processing. When spending only two minutes on a paper, a rater may assign a score that only reflects agreement on salient but superficial features of writing, such as the quality of the handwriting or the presence of spelling errors (p. 78). In another study, Arthur (1979) found that the holistic rankings of second language learners (L2) essays written by lower-intermediate adult learners were related to frequency of spelling and grammar errors, and that the best predictor of rating was the length of composition. In addition, Raforth and Rubin (1984) found that college instructors perceptions of composition quality were most influenced by mechanics. A single holistic score assigned to a writing sample may thus represent different aspects of writing ability for different raters. In holistic rating of L2 writing samples, a significantly larger amount of inconsistent textual information must be processed in a limited amount of time, which may affect the ratings. Several studies have suggested that a quick holistic read of an L2 writing sample may not allow the rater the time necessary to accurately assess the writing performance. Huot (1993) noted that when the rater is required to read a text so quickly for a limited set of criteria outlined in a scoring rubric, the need for agreement may hinder a rich, personal response to the text, thus affecting the consistency of the scores. Hamp- Lyons (2003) has cautioned that it is difficult to accurately capture the criteria used by raters during the quick read of a holistic scoring. Apart from that, Grobe (1981) concluded from an analysis of essays and correlation with holistically obtained scores that teachers see good writing as being closely associated with vocabulary diversity (p. 85). Sakyi (2001) supports Grobes view that raters decisions on awarding scores are significantly influenced by vocabulary diversity and the extent of grammatical error, but also by the range and sophistication of syntax and the style or format of the writing. Sakyi also notes from his own research that for raters who made a conscious effort to follow the scoring guide, the restrictions imposed on them to assign a single score at the end caused them to depend mostly on only one or two particular features to distinguish between different levels of ability (p. 129). Analytic Scoring Method The analytic scoring method was introduced at the same time as the holistic scoring method (Boring, 2002). Hunter (1996) explained that for the analytic scoring method, the domain being tested is subdivided to smaller subdomains. Each of these subdomains is then evaluated by itself. The sum of these subdomains would, by default, reproduce the whole. Proponents of analytic scoring methods (Jacobs, Zinkgraf, Wormuth, Hartfiel, Hughey, 1981; Hamp-Lyons, 1990; Huot, 1993; Weigle, 1999) have found several advantages to this method of scoring. One of the advantages is with multiple scores; analytic scoring schemes provide more information about a test takers performance than holistic scoring schemes and permit a profile of the areas of writing ability. Analytic scoring methods can provide specific feedback, which is needed in measuring achievement, predicting future success, and accurately placing students (Shaw, 2002; Bacha 2001), as well as providing useful diagnostic feedback on writing performance (Jacobs, et al., 1981; Hamp-Lyons, 1991; Cohen, 1994). In the assessment of L2 writing ability, analytic scales are very useful if a students writing ability is developing at differing rates for situation such as when vocabulary is good, but organizational control is lacking. Hamp-Lyons (1991), Huot (1996) and Weigle (2002) have suggested that analytic-type scales are generally more reliable than holistic-type scales since each candidate gets more than one score, and multiple scores contribute to reliability. Regarding intra-rater reliability, some research has suggested that analytic scoring is more useful than holistic in training inexperienced raters. It is argued that the raters can more easily interpret and apply the scoring criteria in separate domains than the criteria as described in one holistic rubric (Francis, 1977, and Adams, 1981, both cited in Weir (1990); Hartog, Rhodes, Burt, 1936; Cast, 1939; Bauer, 1981; and Weigle, 1998). Cumming (1990) suggested that an analytical scale tends to reflect what raters do when rating samples of writing or other language performance that is consider the individual features of writing one by one. According to Vacc (1989), the analytic technique is preferred over the holistic scoring method when detailed feedback is needed, especially with classroom assessments. Another reason to use analytic scoring method is that it has been argued that training raters to use analytic scoring rubrics is relatively easier than training them to use holistic scoring rubrics (Cohen, 1994; McNamara, 1996). According to Boring (2002), one advantage of the analytic scoring method over the holistic scoring method is that with the analytic technique, it is possible to give various weights to different subdomains based on their theoretical importance. In addition, Kroll (1990) described that it can help meet the need that many ESL learners who fail writing tests have, for feedback on both the deficiencies and the qualities in their writing (Kroll, 1990). There are, however, a number of disadvantages to using an analytic scoring scheme for the assessment of direct writing samples. The primary concern regarding analytic scoring is practicality. As Weigle (2002) pointed out, it generally takes longer to score a writing sample using an analytic rubric since the rater must make multiple decisions for each writing sample and thus must read the sample multiple times. Some critics doubt whether writing ability can be measured by a composite score based on different aspects of writing. White (1985) argued that writing is more than the sum of its parts, and that the use of an analytic scoring scheme may in effect divert attention from overall essay effect. Weigle (1999) noted information is lost when raters revise their scores on the different scales once they consider the single composite score. Raters may also tend to rate holistically rather than analytically so that the rater ends up assigning a writing sample the same score in every domain (Cohen, 1994). An additional problem with analytic scoring and rater bias surfaced in Cummings (1990) descriptive analysis of raters comments. Cumming (1990) also found that both novice and expert raters tended to analytically evaluate ESL compositions on both language control and writing ability, implicitly attributing separate values to each of these domains. Hamp-Lyons (1989) noted another potential problem in the reliability of analytic scoring schemes in that an analytic scoring method may favor essays where performance criteria are easily and quickly extracted from the writing sample. While an analytic scoring method offers the potential of additional information regarding the students L2 writing ability, there are potential problems of reliability and validity derived from the scoring procedures. Conclusion All the researches had shown that the method used by teachers in assessing students essay will definitely have an impact on students writing skills and ability. It is very vital to use the correct method so that students will improve their performance. From all the researches also, it can be concluded that most of them focus on the reliability, validity and practicality of the two scoring methods from many perspective. There is very few or none research is done on the teachers point of view on the two methods. In this research paper, the teachers opinions will be concern as much as possible. 2.2 Definition of terms Holistic scoring method is a method which teachers use to evaluate a piece of students writing for its overall quality. It is a method used in essay scoring whereby a single mark is awarded to an essay from a range of marks categorized in different performance bands in which each band is characterized by descriptors based on the total impression of the essay as a whole. It is widely used in Malaysian schools to mark essays in school-based and public examinations. Analytic scoring method is a method that teachers use to assess students written works more specifically and in detail. It is usually based on a well structured rubric where all the components that need to be assessed are stated out clearly and in detail. This method views an essay in as technical a manner as possible. It is not a common method used in Malaysian secondary schools. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction The first purpose of this study is to investigate the use of holistic scoring method and analytic rubrics in essay scoring among teachers of Malaysian secondary schools. This study is also aimed at discovering the relationship between the two methods. Another goal of this study is to find out how analytic scoring method can be applied in Malaysian secondary school. As for the research questions in this study, the first one is how holistic scoring method is used in marking students essays. The second question is how analytic scoring rubrics are used in marking students essays. The third question is why holistic scoring method is mostly used in school. The fourth question is why analytic scoring rubric is rarely used in marking school essays. The last question is how possible is it for analytic scoring rubric to be integrated in the curriculum of Malaysian secondary school. To fulfill the purpose and research questions for this study, only one method is used. Fifty survey questionnaires were distributed. 3.2 Population and sampling The population chosen for this study was teachers of English from Malaysian secondary schools. The population was selected randomly. There was no distinction between gender and races. Fifty teachers from different schools were given the questionnaire. Six schools were chosen to answer the questionnaires. All the teachers chosen to answer questionnaire were teachers of English. All the schools chosen are selected randomly to ensure that there is no bias. 3.3 Instrumentation The instrument used was a questionnaire consisting of 5 sections. The survey is constructed in 5 sections to answer all the research questions. A copy of the survey is attached to appendix A. 3.4 Procedure and time frame This research took about 6 weeks to complete. It started during the 6th week and ended in the 12th week of the semester. During this period of time, the researcher went to six Malaysian secondary schools to give out the questionnaire. First of all, the researcher identified the schools that are suitable for the study. Schools that have at least 8 teachers of English were selected. Secondly, the researcher went to the schools and met with the principal of each school. The researcher asked permission from the principal to give out the questionnaires. Almost all the schools asked the researcher to leave the questionnaires there for collection the next week. The researcher left the questionnaires there according to the number of teachers of English in each school. Thirdly, the researcher went back to each school the next week and collected all the completed questionnaires. Some questionnaires were not collected mainly because teachers were busy with examinations. After collecting all the questionnaires, data were analyzed. 3.5 Analysis plan All the data collected from the survey will be analyzed according to research questions. The first and second sections of the questionnaire are to answer the first two research questions on analytic and holistic scoring. These two sections consist of characteristics on both analytic and holistic scoring. The answers respondents have chosen will reveal their scoring method accurately. Item A1 to A3 will be on analytic marking method, while A4 to A6 will be on holistic marking method. The following graph will present the result for each item. Figure 3.1 . The outline of the presentation of result for section A of the questionnaire Where: A1 I use analytic marking method (mark according to specific criterion) A2 I concentrate on one criterion at a time and read the response specifically for that criterion. A3 I read the response and mark errors in spelling, sentence structure and coherence A4 I use holistic marking method (mark essay as a whole) A5 I read the response and give a mark as a whole A6 After the first reading I assign one band score to the response and confirm this after subsequent readings. Another graph will be for section B. The following graph is to summarize the percentage for section B. Figure 3.2. The outline of the presentation of result for section B of the questionnaire Where: B1 Is the marking scheme holistic guide? B2 Is the marking scheme analytic guide? B3 Do you find the marking scheme easy to interpret? B4 Do you find the marking scheme easy to apply? B5 Do you feel the assessment criteria in the marking scheme provide an accurate and fair assessment? B6 Do you think it is necessary to change the current marking scheme? The third section answers the third research question on holistic scoring. This section is to explore the reasons of teachers who use holistic scoring. The fourth section answered the fourth research question on analytic scoring. This section is to explore the reasons of teachers who use analytic scoring. 7 reasons presented in the questionnaires were according to literature review. This is to find out why teachers like to use holistic or analytic scoring. Two graphs as follow will be used to summarize the result. Figure 3.3. The outline of the presentation of result for section C of the questionnaire Where: C1 I like to use it. C2 It is more convenient. C3 It costs less. C4 It saves time. C5 It is reliable. C6 It provides good feedback for students. C7 It is fair. Figure 3.4. The outline of the presentation of result for section D of the questionnaire Where: D1 I like to use it. D2 It is more convenient. D3 It costs less. D4 It saves time. D5 It is reliable. D6 It provides good feedback for students. D7 It is fair. The last section is to examine the possibility of using analytic scoring in Malaysian secondary context. This answered the last research question. This section is on curriculum of Malaysian secondary school and the use of analytic scoring. If teachers are more positive towards using analytic scoring, it suggests that it is possible to use. The graph used to analyze the result is as follows. Figure 3.5. The outline of the presentation of result for section E of the questionnaire Where: E1 It is possible to mark students essays based on specific features and criterion in school E2 I think that teachers are willing to use analytic scoring rubric in school E3 Analytic scoring rubric is suita

Emily Bronte Bibliography :: essays research papers

"Emily Jane Bronte was born at Thornton in Yorkshire on 30 July 1818, the fifth of six children of Patrick and Maria Bronte (nee Branwell). Two years later, her father was appointed perpetual curate of Haworth, a small, isolated hill village surrounded by moors. Her mother died shortly after her third birthday and she and her sisters and brother were brought up by their aunt, Elizabeth Branwell. Apart from a few short periods, she remained in Haworth. Her only close friendships were those with her brother Branwell and her sisters Charlotte and Anne; only three perfunctory letters by her survive. "From accounts by those who knew Emily Jane Bronte, there emerges a consistent portrait of a reserved, courageous woman with a commanding will and manner. In the biographical note to the 1850 edition of Wuthering Heights, Charlotte Bronte attributes to her sister 'a secret power and fire that might have informed the brain and kindled the veins of a hero', while Monsignor Heger, who taught her in Brussels, was impressed by her 'powerful reason' and 'strong, imperious will'. "Emily Jane Bronte began writing poems at an early age and published twenty-one of them, together with poems by Anne and Charlotte, in 1846 in a slim volume titled Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. At an even earlier age, she collaborated with Charlotte, Branwell, and Anne on the 'plays' and tales that developed into the Glass Town saga. By 1834, Emily and Anne were thoroughly engaged in writing their own saga involving two imaginary islands in the north and south Pacific, Gondal and Gaaldine. No early prose narratives survive, but several poems by Emily and Anne refer to Gondal places and characters. Emily Jane Bronte is best known for her only novel, Wuthering Heights, published under her pseudonym of Ellis Bell in 1847, almost exactly a year before her death on 19 December 1848. She became ill after attending Branwell's funeral, and died of tuberculosis after an illness of about three months." Three writers who influenced the direction of the English novel also happened to be sisters. Charlotte, Emily, and Anne Bronte were all born in Thornton, England in the early 1800s. Their father Patrick was born in Ireland, educated in England, and became an Anglican clergyman. He and his wife had six children. The two oldest daughters, Maria and Elizabeth died before reaching adulthood. Of the remaining children, Charlotte was the eldest, born April 21, 1816; followed by brother Patrick Branwell, born June 26, 1817; then Emily, born July 30, 1818; and Anne, born January 17, 1820. Shortly after Anne's birth, their father accepted a position in Haworth, located within

Giraffe Project Award Essay

Joseph Nicholas, 61, a former tribal council r and state preventative, and David Francis, 70, a former clam digger, woodchopper an d blueberry picker, went out of their way to help prevent a language who's already in a severe case e Of extinction. Joseph and David both provide acts out of caring. They are teaching the child en of Amine's Pusillanimous Indian Tribe how to learn a new language, which in t his case, is new to the children but very old to them. The language Pusillanimous is New Engle end's last living Indian language.They should teach this language to help preserve greater ext .NET of it's extinction. Joseph and David are willing to take on significant personal risk. Francis gather RSI words and phrases for a second edition Of the Pusillanimous dictionary. According g to him, if they â€Å"lose their language, they will lose their identity, its the last thing Indians have. † Joseph and David want Indian children to have and take pride in their own heritage.  "Our own kids had no sense of who we really were†. In general, culture and the languages we speak builds up our identity.A lot of people are, and would like to be even more proud of who the y are and where hey come from. Thanks to Joseph and David willing to take on significant per sonar risk, these Indian kids in that tribe will have something to take pride in, which was theirs from the beginning. The two also rock the boat to make thing better, and not more exciting. They are fighting back with special bilingual booklets, instructional videotapes, and classes. â€Å"Mind mans are always the lazy, bad guys in the history books,† says Nicholas. Being stereotyped is De finitely not something to be proud of.In general, nobody would want their race being poor rayed in a bad way, especially broadcasted in public or written in books. So, they're changing peoples minds by not only teaching the language, but by rocking the boat a little by taking that e extra step of fighting with public broadcastings that make their heritage look bad. David and Joseph are only working, teaching the children of Main?s Passim quoted Indian tribe currently. But, at the same time, they are also gathering terms for a second edition of the Pusillanimous dictionary. Believe that they are doing the best they can to preserve this old language, one step at a time.Candidates Joseph Nicholas and David Francis should definitely win the Giraffe e Award. They've proven themselves to go above and beyond of just helping preserve a n extinct language. They have acts out of caring by teaching and Indian Tribe a new Ian gauge, rocked the boat to make thing better by fighting with broadcasted negativity towards thee r heritage, and they took significant personal risk by by gathering words and phrases in trying to make a second edition of the Pusillanimous dictionary. Without fail, they've stolen my vote fairly.

Hate Crimes Essay Essay Example

Hate Crimes Essay Essay Example Hate Crimes Essay Essay Hate Crimes Essay Essay Essay #2: What are the roots of the violence/hate crimes today in our contemporary society? What can we do to reduce them? Explain. The world is full of HATE. What is this word? What makes someone HATE someone else enough to kill or harm another human being? Hate crimes are criminal actions intended to harm or intimidate people because of their race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, or other minority group status. They are also referred to as bias crimes. Hate crimes have been going on in the world for a long time. I view the crucifixion of Jesus as the first hate crime. Jesus was crucified by the Romans because of religious reasons they didn’t agree with. Did the Crucifixion of Jesus become the root of hate crimes going on in our society? No there is no way to say what became the actual root of hate crimes, but there are a lot of things that could have helped the increase of these crimes. The media, race, and sexuality are the things that have increased hate crime greatly. During the 1900’s the hate crime rate sky rocketed because of race. During this time period African Americans were being lynched because white people refused to see them as their equals. : The whites during this time period went through desperate measures to intimidate the blacks by starting the Klu Klux Klan. The murder of Emmet Till is an example. Emmet Till was a 14 year old boy that was beaten and killed because by two white men because of his race. What white people did to African Americans during that time have put a lot hatred in them, causing them to be angry towards the whites and themselves. In the United States there is a lot of black on black crimes going on. Every day on the news boys and men are getting killed for the dumbest things; such as money, drug, and even women. During the 1990’s, the media depicted a lot of this violence with the whole east coast west coast thing. The east coast versus west coast was a conflict between two very famous rappers: Tupac Shakur and Biggie Smalls. This conflict caused a big issue between LA and New York causing young boys to kill others who was not from the same city as them. The result of the conflict between the rappers was they both got shot and killed within months of each other. There are many different targets of hate crimes and each perpetrator may have many different reasons which they feel justifies their commission of the crime. However in all honesty, there are not a million reasons why hate crimes are committed; there are neither thousands nor hundreds. In fact, there arent even three reasons. There are only two reasons. One is ignorance and the other is stupidity. Some people define those two terms as synonyms. However, I make clear distinctions between them. To me, an ignorant person is someone who makes a poor choice or wrong decision because he/she does not have the proper facts to make a good choice or decision. If that person were to be supplied with the facts of the situation before deciding, they could then make the correct and proper decision. A stupid person is someone who does have the facts regarding the situation, but still makes the wrong choice. Fortunately, there is a cure for ignorance. That cure is called education. Education allows us to make informed choices. That education can come from what we learn in school or what we learn by observing the experiences of others or what we learn from our own experiences. Unfortunately, there is no cure for stupidity. If you educate someone the proper information and facts and they still choose to make the wrong choices, there is nothing you can do. So we must strive to educate ourselves and be willing to educate others by sharing our knowledge and experience when the opportunity presents itself. People, who lack exposure to other people, cultures, and diversity, tend to be ignorant. They fear the unknown or what is foreign to them. So ignorance breeds fear. If that fear is not kept in check, the fear will breed hatred. People tend to hate those things that frighten them. If the hatred is not kept in check, it will breed destruction. People want to destroy what they hate, because it caused them to be afraid. Theres a good possibility that what they were afraid of, was harmless, but they were to ignorant to realize it. So with that being said all we can do is try to reduce it, because with all the stupid people in the world, hate crimes are never going to end. African American Lynching, the Ku Klux Klan, and Hate Crimes. African American Lynchings. N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Oct. 2012. hangmansknot. com/articles/african-american-lynching. htmam p;gt;. Day of Jesus Crucifixion Believed Determined. Discovery News. N. p. , n. d. Web. 1 Oct. 2012. http://news. discovery. com/history/jesus-crucifixion-120524. html. Ferber, Abby L. Getting to the Roots of Hate Crime. The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost. com, 17 Apr. 2009. Web. 11 Oct. 2012. huffingtonpost. com/abby-ferber/getting-to-the-roots-of-h_b_188193. html. National Association of Students Against Violence Everywhere Hate Crimes. National Association of Students Against Violence Everywhere Hate Crimes. N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Oct. 20 12. nationalsave. org/main/hatecrime. php.

Pornography Debate Essays - Anti-pornography Feminism, Free Essays

Pornography Debate Essays - Anti-pornography Feminism, Free Essays Pornography Debate Suppose one accepts MacKinnon and Dworkin's suggested statutory definition of pornography. How does one who generally accepts MacKinnon and Dworkin's views on the pervasively harmful effect of pornography, and who accepts a need for legal redress of the harms perpetrated by pornography, deal with pornographic material? The ordinance proposed by MacKinnon and Dworkin would deal with such material by enacting legislation which gives people adversely affected by the works, which clearly fit their definition of pornography, a cause of action against the producers, vendors, exhibitors or distributors for "trafficking", or for an assault "directly caused by the specific work. I do not think liberals, or others for that matter, should have much problem with the clause dealing with assault, since a causal connection to specific works is demanded by it. However, s. 3.2(iii) which deals with trafficking would be very problematic for liberals and legal conservatives because it creates a cause of action for a person contrary to the traditional conception of a rights holder's cause of action. This subsection reads: Any woman has a claim hereunder as a woman acting against the subordination of women. Any man, child or transsexual who alleges injury by pornography in the way women are injured by it also has a claim. [emphasis added] My goal in this paper is to suggest that a slight modification to this subsection of the ordinance would make it very difficult for liberals and legal conservatives to object to it. This modification would restrict the cause of action to the same persons as the other sections of the ordinance, namely, the particular victim of the specified injury. I shall argue that such a modification would largely cohere with the conception of harm already at work in Ontario law, would afford only a minor reduction in the potential efficacy of such legislation in curbing the harm of pornography, and would offer to empower the feminist camp which is behind such an ordinance with a mechanism for social and political change if a sufficiently organized feminist "vanguard" took hold of the opportunity to empower women. Adrian Howe argues that the concept of social injury which may be suggested by the ordinance recognizes the differential harm felt by women from pornography. Howe suggests this social notion of harm may be a necessary feature of any successful law reform which is to address the huge social problem of male domination and female oppression. The liberal notion of an individuated human right fails to capture, for MacKinnon and Howe, "the specificity of the harm to women." Thus, an ordinance which did not create a cause of action "for women as women" would fail to address the root of the social problem of which pornography is a manifestation. This conception of social harm, and thus subsection 3.2(iii), may offend liberals or legal conservatives in two ways. First, the notion of non-individuated harm is antithetical to the liberal conception of a rights holder claiming a cause of action. Fundamental to a liberal conception of harm is the notion of the individual who is autonomous, separate and fundamentally worthy of respect. Rawls and Kant exemplify this view in their analyses when they posit the undifferentiated self, free of any particular qualities save that of being an agent worthy of a fundamental, inviolable respect. This notion of the individual worthy of equal concern and respect in the eyes of the state permeates liberal conceptions of rights. It is also a fundamental, if not exclusive, tenet of the common law of torts: In tort litigation, the courts must decide whether to shift the loss suffered by one person, the plaintiff, to the shoulders of another person [emphasis added]. Clearly, on its face this conception of harm precludes the notion of a harm suffered collectively which cannot be delineated individually. While class actions are possible, and claims may be made on behalf of groups such as company shareholders, this is only by virtue of the fact that a legally recognized individual has suffered an identifiable particular harm. Thus, the conventional liberal notion of harm is radically distinct from that outlined by Howe and MacKinnon. Since on the liberal conception rights holders are autonomous, individual selves who are essentially distinct, harm to one is distinct from harm to another. It may be that a liberal conception of a rights holder simply renders the concept of a social harm, and thus a cause of action "for women as women" incoherent. I do not wish to discuss whether it is possible to develop a complete liberal notion of social harm. It is sufficient to

Development Is Impossible Without Industrialisation Essay

Development Is Impossible Without Industrialisation - Essay Example This paper will critically examine the statement that development is impossible without industrialization. Development has been defined as the process of acquiring and securing the freedoms that we have reasons to value. They make our life richer and allow us to be fuller social persons (Amartya Sen cited by Oden 2001). Development is a complex multidimensional process which cannot be addressed by economic growth alone. It must be approached with a dynamic perspective and the process of development is not the province of one nation. Nations have to cooperate and coordinate with one another. In Africa a large number of people fall below the extreme poverty line, which affects income, education and health. Unless the problem of poverty is resolved, no development can take place. This requires effective sustainable development which translates into jobs creation, education and health amenities. Sustainable development requires efficient, established and regular institutions and processes but most importantly it requires efficient industrial sectors. History provides sufficient evidence that industrial civilization brought about sustained prosperity. The Industrial Revolution brought all the development goals set forth at the UN Conference - clean water and sanitation, the elimination of disease, plentiful food (Tracinski, 2002). Industrial capitalism could make man’s physical environment healthier. Nations with large populations demonstrate a marked transformation and higher income growth. Development may vary across nations and may also vary over time, but development is impossible without industrialization. Nations benefit when they step into industrialization. Virtually every country that has experienced rapid growth in productivity and changes in life style over the last two hundred years has done so by industrializing (Murphy, Shleifer, & Vishny, 1998). Countries like

Puig's 'Kiss of the Spider Woman' Is Seducing the Reader Essay

Puig's 'Kiss of the Spider Woman' Is Seducing the Reader - Essay Example The descriptions of the movies are interrupted with men clarifying their attitudes and relationships. Though it may seem boring from the very beginning, the reader suddenly understands, that he has been led away by the author - as soon as he is involved into the next narration, Puig makes a theatrical gesture: it is high time for the prisoners to have a sleep, and thus the only thing left for us is to wait for the next part of the story. But the main line of seduction lies in the urge to discuss the questions of sex, homosexuality, which are directly related to the issues of morality. By describing the two men having sexual relations, Puig deconstructs the superiority of everything feminine in the world. As Valentine says, 'when it comes to our relationship.... We could make any damn thing out of it we want; our relationship isn't pressured since outside of this cell we may have our oppressors, yes, but not inside. Here no one oppresses the other' (p. 202), which shows the main deconstruction of the male behavior by Puig. In this way the author as if seduces us to think, that probably there is nothing immoral in homosexual relations between the two men, and that probably such relations have the right to exist, but here the question of morality comes into the conflict.